![](data:image/svg+xml;utf8,<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" version="1.1" height="1667px" width="2500px"></svg>)
The Collector’s Guide to Chinese Musical Instruments
From string and percussion to wind instruments, we delve into the ancient world of Chinese musical instruments.
C hinese musical instruments have shaped musical development far beyond China's borders over several millennia, contributing fundamental concepts to world music such as tonal systems, innovative playing techniques, and novel approaches to timbre and texture. The sheng's free-reed technology influenced the creation of Western instruments like the harmonica, while the pipa's journey along the Silk Road transformed musical traditions from Central Asia to Japan. Many of these instruments are not simply musical instruments; they are symbols of cultural identity and links to the rich history of Chinese music and performance art. Adapting and assimilating regional indigenous musical traditions as well as influences from India and Central and West Asia into the living legacy of Chinese music has ensured its enduring relevance in global musical expression.
String Instruments
Guqin (古琴)
The ancient Chinese seven-stringed zither, the guqin, has historically been viewed as a pillar of Chinese high culture. Referred to by the Chinese as “the father of Chinese music” or “the instrument of the sages”, the guqin is mentioned in Chinese writings dating back nearly 3,000 years, and examples have been discovered in tombs dating from around 2,500 years ago. Imperial Chinese noblemen and elite scholars were expected to be skilled in four art forms: qin (today called the guqin), qi (chess), shu (calligraphy), and hua (painting). Tradition dictated that two decades of training were required to attain proficiency in the guqin, whose playing was also considered a way to cultivate moral character.
A gentleman does not part with his qin or se without good reason.
The guqin and its music was inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2008 by UNESCO. Played with both hands, the right hand plucks whilst the left hand slides between notes or plays a variety of ornaments and vibratos. The 13 hui (positions of one string) represent the 13 months of the lunar calendar, whilst the original five silk strings (nowadays seven strings) correspond to the five elements – metal, wood, water, fire and earth. Two holes of different sizes along its back, called the “phoenix pond” and the “dragon pond” respectively, symbolise the harmony of yin and yang. The sound board is constructed from wood of the Chinese parasol tree, which represents virility. Parasol trees are said to attract the phoenix, whose singing is the most beautiful sound in the world. The guqin is thus considered by the ancient Chinese as a means of communicating with Heaven.
Erhu (二胡)
Known as the “Chinese violin” in the Western world, the erhu is a two-stringed bowed instrument that produces haunting, voice-like tones which can imitate the sound of Chinese singing as well as the sound of birds and horses. Held upright on the thigh, bowing is done horizontally, whilst the right hand alters the bow tension and crosses strings. The erhu has two strings and a snakeskin-covered sound box (or resonator). The term huqin was traditionally used to describe the family of Chinese fiddles. Literally meaning “the instruments of the Hu peoples” (the nomadic ethnic groups from the north and west regions of ancient China), it is widely believed to have emerged during the Tang dynasty (618-907), with its existence noted in contemporary Tang poetry and literature.
Pipa (琵琶)
Lute-like instruments appeared as early as 300 BC in China, slowly migrating from Central Asia into China during the Han and Sui dynasties (first to seventh century). The pipa was originally used as an umbrella term for these lute-like instruments, its name taken from the inward and outward plucking actions for playing such instruments p'i, "to play forward" (toward the left), and p'a, "to play backward" (toward the right). Today, with its elegant pear-shaped appearance and bright, charming tone, the pipa is a charismatic solo instrument that occupies an important position in modern Chinese orchestras. Until the mid-tenth century, the pipa was held horizontally like a guitar and its twisted silk strings plucked with a large triangular plectrum. Towards the end of the Tang dynasty, it was held in a more upright position to enable musicians to use their fingernails to execute the increasingly exuberant, vigorous repertory that would become the national style. Centuries-old pipa classics such as White Snow of Spring and Ambushed from All Sides remain popular today.
Wind Instruments
Dizi (笛子)
The dizi is a transverse flute fashioned from bamboo which ranges two and a half octaves. A thin membrane (stripped from the inner layer of a bamboo stalk) attached to the dizi produces a distinct buzzing tone. The earliest specimen dates to Neolithic Hemudu culture (in the present-day Hubei province) 7,000 years ago, and was made from bird bone. Bamboo, a symbol of the Chinese virtues of modesty and tenacity, was commonly used from 4,000 years ago. Pre-Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220), the dizi mostly referred to a vertical flute, with transverse flutes emerging only during the reign of the Wudi Emperor (r. 141-87 BC), the seventh emperor of the Han dynasty. By the Tang dynasty, transverse flutes and vertical flutes were called di and xiao respectively, with the Taizong and Xuanzong Emperors playing the dizi and frequently hosting court performances. Royal favour saw the dizi rocket in popularity. By the Song (960-1279) and Yuan (1279-1368) dynasties, the dizi frequently accompanied operas and poetry performances.
Sheng (笙)
The sheng is an ancient polyphonic free-reed mouth organ that inspired the Western harmonica and other Western reed instruments. It is one of the oldest Chinese instruments, with a history dating back more than 3,000 years and is mentioned in early Zhou dynasty (c. 1050 – 221 BC) texts. According to Chinese legend, the creator goddess Nüwa shaped the 13-pipe sheng from bamboo and jade, to reflect the harmony of nature and as a symbol of the balance she sought to restore in the world. The sheng’s ethereal sounds, likened to the hum of a phoenix’s wings, played an important role in Confucian rituals and ceremonies. Played by blowing and sucking, the bamboo pipes symbolise the folded wings of the phoenix, and are fitted with metal free reeds concealed in the bowl-shaped wind chamber. Whilst traditional versions had 13-17 pipes, modern versions can have up to 37 pipes. Now available in different sizes with high, middle or low pitch ranges, the sheng is a key wind instrument in modern Chinese orchestras.
Percussion Instruments
Tanggu (堂鼓)
The tanggu, also known as the "hall drum," is a barrel drum played with two wooden sticks. It is a vital instrument in Chinese opera and ensemble music, influencing theatrical percussion throughout East Asia. Remarkably, its traditional construction methods have remained largely unchanged over time. The tanggu has a rich history, with its origins dating back to the Neolithic period. It gained ceremonial importance during the Shang dynasty (16th century – c.1050 BC) and played a crucial role in military communications. By the 18th century, the tanggu became a central instrument in the Beijing Opera, captivating audiences with its powerful rhythms. Over the years, various sizes and styles have been developed for different performances and ceremonies.
Yunluo (云锣)
The yunluo, literally "cloud gongs" or "cloud of gongs", is a traditional Chinese percussion instrument consisting of a set of (usually 10) tuned gongs suspended in individual compartments on a wooden frame which are played with small mallets. Its bright, resonant sounds achieved widespread popularity during the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368) and the yunluo was primarily used at court and in Confucian ceremonies, exemplifying the advanced understanding of musical scales and harmony in China. By the 18th century it was incorporated into private rituals such as weddings and funerals, and by the mid-20th century the yunluo became a key part of Chinese orchestras, appearing with 24 or more gongs and a range of three octaves.
